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Effects of Nuclear Weapons

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The

Effects

of

Nuclear

Weapons

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P—.... y/WxyDISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an
agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability
or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents
that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference
herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by
trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not
necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or
favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The
views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily
state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency
thereof.

DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in electronic image
products. Images are produced from the best available
original document.
The
Effects

of

Nuclear

Weapons

Compiled and edited by

Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan

Third Edition

Prepared and published by the

United States Department of Defense

and the

United States Department of Energy

1977

--------------------------------NOTICE--------------------------------

This report was prepared as an account of work
sponsored by the United States Government Neither the
United States nor the United States Department of
Energy, not any of then employees, nor any of their
contractor, subcontractors, or then employees, makes
any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness
or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or
process disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately owned rights

DISTRIBUTION O' O'iS pOCUMENT IS UNL1M
PREFACE
When "The Effects of Atomic Weapons" was published in 1950, the explosive
energy yields of the fission bombs available at that time were equivalent to some
thousands of tons (i.e., kilotons) of TNT. With the development of thermonuclear
(fusion) weapons, having energy yields in the range of millions of tons (i.e.,
megatons) of TNT, a new presentation, entitled "The Effects of Nuclear Weap­
ons," was issued in 1957. A completely revised edition was published in 1962 and
this was reprinted with a few changes early in 1964.

Since the last version of "The Effects of Nuclear Weapons" was prepared, much
new information has become available concerning nuclear weapons effects. This
has come in part from the series of atmospheric tests, including several at very high
altitudes, conducted in the Pacific Ocean area in 1962. In addition, laboratory
studies, theoretical calculations, and computer simulations have provided a better
understanding of the various effects. Within the limits imposed by security re­
quirements, the new information has been incorporated in the present edition. In
particular, attention may be called to a new chapter on the electromagnetic pulse.

We should emphasize, as has been done in the earlier editions, that numerical
values given in this book are not—and cannot be—exact. They must inevitably
include a substantial margin of error. Apart from the difficulties in making
measurements of weapons effects, the results are often dependent upon circum­
stances which could not be predicted in the event of a nuclear attack. Furthermore,
two weapons of different design may have the same explosive energy yield, but the
effects could be markedly different. Where such possibilities exist, attention is
called in the text to the limitations of the data presented; these limitations should not
be overlooked.

The material is arranged in a manner that should permit the general reader to
obtain a good understanding of the various topics without having to cope with the
more technical details. Most chapters are thus in two parts: the first part is written at
a fairly low technical level whereas the second treats some of the more technical and
mathematical aspects. The presentation allows the reader to omit any or all of the
latter sections without loss of continuity.

The choice of units for expressing numerical data presented us with a dilemma.
The exclusive use of international (SI) or metric units would have placed a burden
on many readers not familiar with these units, whereas the inclusion of both SI and
common units would have complicated many figures, especially those with
logarithmic scales. As a compromise, we have retained the older units and added an
explanation of the SI system and a table of appropriate conversion factors.
Preface
Many organizations and individuals contributed in one way or another to this
revision of "The Effects of Nuclear Weapons," and their cooperation is gratefully
acknowledged. In particular, we wish to express our appreciation of the help given
us by L. J. Deal and W. W. Schroebel of the Energy Research and Development
Administration and by Cmdr. H. L. Hoppe of the Department of Defense.

Samuel Glasstone
Philip J. Dolan

(
CONTENTS
Page

Chapter I—General Principles of Nuclear Explosions ............................ 1

Characteristics of Nuclear Explosions........................................................ 1

Scientific Basis of Nuclear Explosions ...................................................... 12

Chapter II—Descriptions of Nuclear Explosions ..................................... 26

Introduction ................................................................................................... 26

Description of Air and Surface Bursts........................................................ 27

Description of High-Altitude Bursts........................................................... 45

Description of Underwater Bursts .............................................................. 48

Description of Underground Bursts ........................................................... 58

Scientific Aspects of Nuclear Explosion Phenomena............................... 63

Chapter III—Air Blast Phenomena in Air and Surface Bursts .............. 80

Characteristics of the Blast Wave in Air . . . . •........................................ 80

Reflection of Blast Wave at a Surface........................................................ 86

Modification of Air Blast Phenomena........................................................ 92

Technical Aspects of Blast Wave Phenomena.......................................... 96

Chapter IV—Air Blast Loading.................................................................... 127

Interaction of Blast Wave with Structures ................................................ 127

Interaction of Objects with Air Blast ..................................................... 132

Chapter V—Structural Damage from Air Blast ......................................... 154

Introduction ................................................................................................... 154

Factors Affecting Response......................................................................... 156

Commercial and Administrative Structures................................................ 158

Industrial Structures........................................................................................ 165

Residential Structures.................................................................................... 175

Transportation................................................................................................ 189

Utilities........................................................................................................... 195

Miscellaneous Targets .................................................................................. 206

Analysis of Damage from Air Blast........................................................... 212

Chapter VI—Shock Effects of Surface and Subsurface Bursts ................ 231

Characteristics of Surface and Shallow Underground Bursts ................... 231

Deep Underground Bursts............................................................................ 238

Damage to Structures..................................................................................... 241

Characteristics of Underwater Bursts ......................................................... 244
Technical Aspects of Surface and Underground Bursts ................. 253
Technical Aspects of Deep Underground Bursts ..................................... 260

Loading on Buried Structures...................................................................... 263

Damage from Ground Shock ...................................................................... 265

Technical Aspects of Underwater Bursts................................................... 268

Chapter VII—Thermal Radiation and Its Effects .................................... 276

Radiation from the Fireball ......................................................................... 276

Thermal Radiation Effects............................................................................ 282

Incendiary Effects.......................................................................................... 296

Incendiary Effects in Japan ......................................................................... 300

Technical Aspects of Thermal Radiation................................................... 305

Radiant Exposure-Distance Relationships................................................... 316

Chapter VIII—Initial Nuclear Radiation ................................................... 324

Nature of Nuclear Radiations...................................................................... 324

Gamma Rays.................................................................................................. 326

Neutrons ........................................................................................................ 340

Transient-Radiation Effects on Electronics (TREE).................................. 349

Technical Aspects of Initial Nuclear Radiation ....................................... 353

Chapter IX—Residual Nuclear Radiation and Fallout ............................ 387

Sources of Residual Radiation ...................... ....................................... 387

Radioactive Contamination from Nuclear Explosions ............................ 409

Fallout Distribution in Land Surface Bursts ............................................. 414

Fallout Predictions for Land Surface Bursts ............................................. 422

Attenuation of Residual Nuclear Radiation................................................ 439

Delayed Fallout ............................................................................................. 442

Technical Aspects of Residual Nuclear Radiation.................................... 450

Chapter X—Radio and Radar Effects ........................................................ 461

Introduction .................................................................................................. 461

Atmospheric Ionization Phenomena........................................................... 462

Ionization Produced by Nuclear Explosions ............................................. 466

Effects on Radio and Radar Signals........................................................... 479

Technical Aspects of Radio and Radar Effects ....................................... 489

Chapter XI—The Electromagnetic Pulse and its Effects......................... 514

Origin and Nature of the EMP................................................................... 514

BMP Damage and Protection....................................................................... 523

Theory of the EMP...................................................................................... 532

Chapter XII—Biological Effects ................................................................. 541

Introduction .................................................................................................. 541

Blast Injuries.................................................................................................. 548

Burn Injuries.................................................................................................. 560

Nuclear Radiation Injury............................................................................... 575
Characteristics of Acute Whole-Body Radiation Injury ......................... 583
Combined Injuries........................................................................................... 588

Late Effects of Ionizing Radiation.............................................................. 589

Effects of Early Fallout ............................................................................... 594

Long-Term Hazard from Delayed Fallout ................................................ 604

Genetic Effects of Nuclear Radiation ......................................................... 609

Pathology of Acute Radiation Injury ......................................................... 614

Blast-Related Effects..................................................................................... 618

Effects on Farm Animals and Plants........................................................... 618

Glossary.............................................................................................................. 629

Guide to SI Units ............................................................................................. 642

Index.................................................................................................................... 644
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

INTRODUCTION

1.01 An explosion, in general, re­
sults from the very rapid release of a
large amount of energy within a limited
space. This is true for a conventional
"high explosive," such as TNT, as well
as for a nuclear (or atomic) explosion,1
although the energy is produced in quite
different ways (§ 1.11). The sudden
liberation of energy causes a consider­
able increase of temperature and pres­
sure, so that all the materials present are
converted into hot, compressed gases.
Since these gases are at very high tem­
peratures and pressures, they expand
rapidly and thus initiate a pressure
wave, called a "shock wave," in the
surrounding medium—air, water, or
earth. The characteristic of a shock
wave is that there is (ideally) a sudden
increase of pressure at the front, with a
gradual decrease behind it, as shown in
Fig. 1.01. A shock wave in air is gen­
erally referred to as a "blast wave"
because it resembles and is accompan­
ied by a very strong wind. In water or in *

the ground, however, the term "shock"
is used, because the effect is like that of
a sudden impact.

1.02 Nuclear weapons are similar to
those of more conventional types insofar
as their destructive action is due mainly
to blast or shock. On the other hand,
there are several basic differences be­
tween nuclear and high-explosive
weapons. In the first place, nuclear ex­
plosions can be many thousands (or
millions) of times more powerful than
the largest conventional detonations.
Second, for the release of a given
amount of energy, the mass of a nuclear
explosive would be much less than that
of a conventional high explosive. Con­
sequently, in the former case, there is a
much smaller amount of material avail­
able in the weapon itself that is con­
verted into the hot, compressed gases
mentioned above. This results in some­
what different mechanisms for the ini­
tiation of the blast wave. Third, the
temperatures reached in a nuclear ex­
plosion are very much higher than in a

'The terms ''nuclear'' and atomic" may be used interchangeably so far as weapons, explosions, and
energy are concerned, but "nuclear" is preferred for the reason given in § 1.11.

1
2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
AMBIENT PRESSURE

DISTANCE

Figure 1.01. Variation of pressure (in excess of ambient) with distance in an ideal shock

wave.

conventional explosion, and a fairly
large proportion of the energy in a nu­
clear explosion is emitted in the form of
light and heat, generally referred to as
"thermal radiation." This is capable of
causing skin burns and of starting fires at
considerable distances. Fourth, the nu­
clear explosion is accompanied by
highly-penetrating and harmful invisible
rays, called the "initial nuclear radia­
tion." Finally the substances remaining
after a nuclear explosion are radioac­
tive, emitting similar radiations over an
extended period of time. This is known
as the "residual nuclear radiation" or
"residual radioactivity" (Fig. 1.02).

1.03 It is because of these funda­
mental differences between a nuclear
and a conventional explosion, including
the tremendously greater power of the
former, that the effects of nuclear
weapons require special consideration.
In this connection, a knowledge and

understanding of the mechanical and the
various radiation phenomena associated
with a nuclear explosion are of vital
importance.

1.04 The purpose of this book is to
describe the different forms in which the
energy of a nuclear explosion are re­
leased, to explain how they are propa­
gated, and to show how they may affect
people (and other living organisms) and
materials. Where numerical values are
given for specific observed effects, it
should be kept in mind that there are
inevitable uncertainties associated with
the data, for at least two reasons. In the
first place, there are inherent difficulties
in making exact measurements of
weapons effects. The results are often
dependent on circumstances which are
difficult, if not impossible, to control,
even in a test and certainly cannot be
predicted in the event of an attack. Fur­
thermore, two weapons producing the

https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/6852629/

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